¹Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics ix, 1 (1985) [hereinafter, Kevles].

²John H. Beckstrom, Evolutionary Jurisprudence: Prospects and Limitations on the Use of Modern Darwinism throughout the Legal Process 36 (1989) [hereinafter, Beckstrom].

³A slightly modified notion of eugenics is meant here. We have included "purposeful action" as a component of eugenics, and neither purposes nor actions can be attributed to Nature. The results of natural processes often seem to be purposeful or designed, and the processes of Nature seem to be composed of actions. This will be explained further in the discussion on natural selection.

⁴Consider that the numbers of most species remain relatively stable over time; if parents typically succeeded in producing significantly more than two offspring that are productive in their own right, we would observe huge population increases -- and we don't. A pair of Pacific salmon, for example, produce about 6,000 fertilized eggs, of which just two will survive to reproduce themselves; the rest will typically be eaten alive by other creatures. See Robert Trivers, Social Evolution 12 (1985) [hereinafter, Trivers].

⁵See The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia 217-221 (Mark B. Adams, ed., 1990) [hereinafter, Adams].

⁶See generally Kevles, supra note 1. Kevles provides especially detailed biographical information on British and American eugenicists and their interrelationships.

⁷Diane B. Paul & Hamish G. Spencer, "The Hidden Science of Eugenics," 374 Nature 302-4 (1995).

⁸Kevles, supra note 1, at 175 (quoting Frederick Osborn, Preface to Eugenics (1940), pp. 296-7).

⁹M.A. Santos, Genetics and Man's Future: Legal, Social, and Moral Implications of Genetic Engineering 44 (1981) [hereinafter, Santos].

¹⁰Kevles, supra note 1, at 117, 183-4 (Eugenicists in England and the U.S. also proposed -- unsuccessfully -- programs of family allowances and tax exemptions for the upper classes).

¹¹Id. at 188-9, 191, 261-3.

¹²Id. at 185-6, 189-90, 264-5, 289, 297, 299.

¹³Santos, supra note 9, at 76-83 (includes a discussion of case law and social policy concerning in vitro fertilization and surrogacy).

¹⁴Id. at 55-62.

¹⁵Ethics, Reproduction and Genetic Control 147-162 (Ruth F. Chadwick, ed., 1987); Ciba Foundation Symposium 149, Human Genetic Information: Science, Law and Ethics 81-6 (Derek Chadwick et al., eds., 1990).

¹⁶Owen D. Jones, Reproductive Autonomy and Evolutionary Biology: A Regulatory Framework for Trait-Selection Technologies, in Biology, Law, and Human Social Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Reader 185-6 (1995) (reprinted from 19 American Journal of Law & Medicine 187-231 (1993)) [hereinafter, Jones].

¹⁷Kevles, supra note 1, at 72, 94-5, 96-8, 106-7, 121, 170.

¹⁸Id. at 100; John H. Beckstrom, Evolutionary Jurisprudence: Prospects and Limitations on the Use of Modern Darwinism throughout the Legal Process 71-2n (1989) [hereinafter, Beckstrom].

¹⁹Beckstrom, supra note 18, at 71-2n.

²⁰Kevles, supra note 1, at 98-9.

²¹Id. at 100, 109, 115-6, 168-9, 275.

²²Id. at 259.

²³Id. at 92, 257, 299.

²⁴Id. at 253-8, 278, 292-3, 378.

²⁵Id. at 257, 285-8.

²⁶Id. at 291-5, 298-300, 376-8.

²⁷Id. at 259-61 ("Genetic load" was Hermann Muller's term, though he did not advocate compulsory eugenics); William T. Vukowich, "The Dawning of the Brave New World -- Legal, Ethical, and Social Issues of Eugenics," in U. Ill. L. Rev. 192-3 (1971) [hereinafter, Vukowich].

²⁸Id. at 255.

²⁹Santos, supra note 9, at 24-31.

³⁰John Rennie, "Grading the Gene Tests," 270 Scientific American 90 (1994) (Also to be considered is the fact that the heterozygous condition may confer a survival benefit; sickle-cell anemia, for example, makes carriers resistant to malaria, and Tay-Sachs provides a resistance to tuberculosis).

³¹See generally Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature (1978) [hereinafter, Wilson]; Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (1987); Robert Trivers, Social Evolution (1985); Timothy H. Goldsmith, The Biological Roots of Human Nature (1991); Studies in the Philosophy of Biology (F.J. Ayala & T. Dobzhansky eds., 1974); Michael S. Gazzaniga, Nature's Mind: The Biological Roots of Thinking, Emotions, Sexuality, Language, and Intelligence (1992).

³²See generally Wilson, supra note 31; Trivers, supra note 4; Timothy H. Goldsmith, The Biological Roots of Human Nature (1991); Bernard D. Davis, Storm over Biology (1986).

³³See generally R.C. Lewontin, Steven Rose, & Leon J. Kamin, Not In Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature (1984); Philip Kitcher, Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature (1985)

³⁴Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker 200 (1987).

³⁵Beckstrom, supra note 18, at 60-6; Wilson, supra note 31, at 37-40.

³⁶J.H. Bennett, Natural Selection, Heredity, and Eugenics 6, 54 (1983).

³⁷Wilson, supra note 31, at 40-1.

³⁸Jones, supra note 16, at 192-3.

³⁹Trivers, supra note 4, at 298.

⁴⁰1 The Value of Children: A Cross-National Study: Introduction and Comparative Analysis 130-5 (Fred Arnold et al., eds., 1975).

⁴¹Bernard D. Davis, Storm over Biology 33 (1986).

⁴²Jones, supra note 16, at 182, 208 ("[T]he Supreme Court has already usefully articulated, in a line of cases currently culminating with Planned Parenthood v. Casey, important legal and social values that inform our laws and policies governing, and at times protecting, our reproductive behavior.").

⁴³Council for Science and Society, Human Procreation: Ethical Aspects of the New Techniques 62-3 (1984).

⁴⁴Vukowich, supra note 27, at 207.

⁴⁵Jones, supra note 16, at 182, 208 ("The standard Casey articulates, namely that laws interfering with reproductive matters involving the most basic decisions that a person can make about parenting and family must be subjected to heightened and probing judicial scrutiny, applies squarely to TSTs.").

⁴⁶I am indebted to Martin Brannen for this example.

⁴⁷If this sounds inhuman, I think it's because (as usual) we think of our attitudes as something more meaningful than evolved means to an end. We also think of them (often mistakenly) as accurate, not misleading. We have a hard-wired, very high regard for children -- an attitude that promotes inclusive fitness by motivating us to protect and care for new generations. There has never been an evolutionary need for us to see the actual role that individual children play in the pursuit of inclusive fitness -- which, for the unfortunately endowed, may be no role at all.

⁴⁸Legal Rights of Children 95-6 (Robert M. Horowitz & Howard A. Davidson, eds., 1984).

⁴⁹For a discussion of unwanted children, see Life or Death -- Who Controls? 91-103 (Nancy C. Ostheimer & John M. Ostheimer, eds., 1976) ("Abuse of children is tragic. But it could be reduced by eliminating compulsory pregnancy, and by helping people to conceive, bear, and cherish children who are wanted and welcomed.").

⁵⁰Kevles, supra note 1, at 298-301; Legal Rights of Children 90-5 (Robert M. Horowitz & Howard A. Davidson, eds., 1984).

Mark B. Adams, ed., The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia (1990)

Fred Arnold et al., eds., 1 The Value of Children: A Cross-National Study: Introduction and Comparative Analysis (1975)

F.J. Ayala & T. Dobzhansky eds., Studies in the Philosophy of Biology (1974)

John H. Beckstrom, Evolutionary Jurisprudence: Prospects and Limitations on the Use of Modern Darwinism throughout the Legal Process (1989)

John H. Beckstrom, Darwinism Applied: Evolutionary Paths to Social Goals (1993)

J.H. Bennett, Natural Selection, Heredity, and Eugenics (1983)

Ruth F. Chadwick, ed., Ethics, Reproduction and Genetic Control (1987)

Ciba Foundation Symposium 149, Human Genetic Information: Science, Law and Ethics (Derek Chadwick et al., eds., 1990)

Council for Science and Society, Human Procreation: Ethical Aspects of the New Techniques (1984)

Bernard D. Davis, Storm over Biology (1986)

Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (1987)

Eugenics Society, Developments in Human Reproduction and their Eugenic, Ethical Implications (Symposium 1982)

Eugenics Society, The Biology of Human Intelligence(Symposium 1983)

Michael S. Gazzaniga, Nature's Mind: The Biological Roots of Thinking, Emotions, Sexuality, Language, and Intelligence (1992)

Timothy H. Goldsmith, The Biological Roots of Human Nature (1991)

Margaret Gruter, Law and the Mind: Biological Origins of Human Behavior (1991)

John Horgan, "Eugenics Revisited: Trends in Behavioral Genetics," in 268 Scientific American 122-128 (1993)

Robert M. Horowitz & Howard A. Davidson, eds., Legal Rights of Children (1984)

Owen D. Jones, "Reproductive Autonomy and Evolutionary Biology: A Regulatory Framework for Trait-Selection Technologies," in Biology, Law, and Human Social Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Reader 192-3 (1995) (reprinted from 19 American Journal of Law & Medicine 187-231 (1993))

Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics (1985)

Philip Kitcher, Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature (1985)

R.C. Lewontin, Steven Rose, & Leon J. Kamin, Not In Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature (1984)

Charles C. Mann, "Behavioral Genetics in Transition," in 264 Science 1686-89 (1994)

Pauline M.H. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics, and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, its Sources and its Critics in Britain (1992)

"Medical Technology and the Law," in 103 Harv. L. Rev. 1519, 1529 (1990)

Nancy C. Ostheimer & John M. Ostheimer, eds., Life or Death -- Who Controls? (1976)

Diane B. Paul & Hamish G. Spencer, "The Hidden Science of Eugenics," 374 Nature 302-4 (1995)

"Procreative Liberty and the Control of Contraception, Pregnancy, and Childbirth," in 9 Va. L. Rev. 405 (1983)

John Rennie, "Grading the Gene Tests," 270 Scientific American 88-97 (1994)

M.A. Santos, Genetics and Man's Future: Legal, Social, and Moral Implications of Genetic Engineering (1981)

Michael H. Shapiro, ed., Biological and Behavioral Technologies and the Law (1982)

J. David Smith, The Eugenic Assault on America (1993)

Robert Trivers, Social Evolution (1985)

William T. Vukowich, "The Dawning of the Brave New World -- Legal, Ethical, and Social Issues of Eugenics," in U. Ill. L. Rev. 189, 189 (1971)

Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature (1978)